Sufism (tasawwuf) is an Islamic modality that emphasizes self-purification and the attainment of spiritually advanced states through the assumption of specific practices and disciplines, typically through affiliation with a particular brotherhood and its leader, a sheikh. Sufi practices, whether one is officially bound to a brotherhood or not, are widespread in Syria and include visiting the tombs of saints, members of the family of the Prophet Muhammad, or other revered figures and the recitation of litanies (dhikr).
The Naqshbandiyyah
The Naqshbandiyyah is a global Sufi movement named for the 14th century mystic Baha al-Din Naqshband, though adherents trace their lineage back to the successor of the Prophet Muhammad, the Caliph Abu Bakr. It is distinguished from other Sufi movements by adherents’ silent recitation of invocations, referred to as dhikr. The tradition was strongly influenced by Sheikh Diya al-Din Khalid (d. 1827), whose followers are referred to as the Khalidiyyah. Sheikh Khalid sought to reform Sunni Islam by balancing strict adherence to Islamic law with mysticism, while resisting the encroachment of Salafism. As a result, the Naqshbandiyyah were widely popular throughout the Ottoman Empire and enjoyed support from the Ottoman Sultanate.
With the rise of the Ba’ath party, Syrian Naqshbandi leadership split on the question of whether to lend support or to join the Islamist opposition. Khalidi Naqshbandi leader and Syrian Grand Mufti Sheikh Ahmed Kuftaro (d. 2004) supported Hafez al-Assad and the Ba’ath regime. Subsequently, the Kuftariyyah Naqshbandis emerged as Syria's most influential Sufi brotherhood. Ahmed Kuftaro established a network of schools throughout Syria, including the Abu Nour Institute in Damascus, and forged relationships with Muslim leaders worldwide. The Abu Nour Institute drew foreign students to Syria who sought a traditional Islamic education, including African American Muslims who received scholarships as a result of a relationship Sheikh Kuftaro cultivated with African American Muslim leader Warith Deen Muhammad. Upon his death, the lineage was passed to his son Ahmed al-Din al-Kuftaro. The success of the Naqshbandiyyah-Khalidiyyah-Kuftariyyah order has been in large part on account of its relationship with the state, and the order has seen significant expansion while other Syrian Sufi orders, including the Qadiriyyah, Shadhiliyyah, Mawlawiyyah, and Rifa'iyyah have either maintained membership or have declined.
The Qadiriyyah
The Qadiriyyah order was founded in 14th century Damascus, and named posthumously for Baghdadi scholar Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (d. 1166). It spread across North Africa and the Middle East by the end of the 14th century, and to West Africa and Southeast Asia by the 19th century. It is notable for being the first Sufi order to distinctly organize itself around a particular founder; earlier orders linked themselves directly to the Prophet Muhammad. Practices include recitation of invocations and supplications (dhikr), as well as gathering for a weekly hadra, during which adherents collectively and animatedly perform dhikr. Qadiris including Usman Dan Fodio (d. 1819) in Nigeria and Abd al-Qadir al-Jiza’iri (d. 1883) in Algeria were prominent figures in anti-colonial resistance movements.
In Syria, the Qadiriyyah was largely urban and associated with notable families in Damascus and Hama. As with other Sufi brotherhoods in the 19th and 20th centuries, the Qadiriyyah found itself under increasing pressure by the growing Salafi movement, which considers Sufism heretical, as well as from Western ideologies. The Ba'ath regime has been generally hostile towards Sufi activities, particularly after the 1982 Islamic uprising in Hama, where many members of the leading Qadiri Kaylani family were killed and the brotherhood's lodge destroyed. Overall, the Syrian Qadiriyya has seen a decline in the 20th century while the Naqshbandiyyah, particularly its Kuftariyyah branch, has gained prominence for its orthodox Islamic teachings and sociopolitically advantageous relationship with the Syrian government.
Sources
Cyril Glasse, "Qadirirriyah," in The New Encyclopedia of Islam (New York: Altamira Press, 2001), p. 367.
Bruce Masters, "Naqshbandiyya Order," in Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, eds. Gabor Agoston and Bruce Masters, (New York: Facts on File Inc, 2009), pp. 410-419.
Itzchak Weismann, The Naqshbandiyya: Orthodoxy and Activism in a Worldwide Sufi Tradition, (Abingdon: Routledge, 2007).
Itzchak Weismann, “Sufi Brotherhoods in Syria and Israel: A Contemporary Overview,” History of Religions, Vol. 42, No. 4 (May 2004), pp. 303-318.